Performance of an immuno-rapid malaria Pf/Pv rapid diagnostic test for malaria diagnosis in the Western Brazilian Amazon

Abstract INTRODUCTION: Rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) for detecting Plasmodium antigens have become increasingly common worldwide. We aimed to evaluate the accuracy of the Immuno-Rapid Malaria Pf/Pv RDT in detecting Plasmodium vivax infection compared to standard thick blood smear (TBS) under microscopy. METHODS: Hundred and eighty-one febrile patients from the hospital's regular admissions were assessed using TBS and RDT in a blinded experiment. RESULTS: RDT showed a sensitivity of 98.9%, specificity of 100%, and accuracy of 99.5% for P. vivax infection when compared to TBS. CONCLUSIONS: The RDT is highly accurate, making it a valuable diagnostic tool for P. vivax infection.

Immunoproteomics of Plasmodium falciparum-infected red blood cell membrane fractions

BACKGROUND The surface of infected red blood cells (iRBCs) has been widely investigated because of the molecular complexity and pathogenesis mechanisms involved. Asymptomatic individuals are important in the field because they can perpetuate transmission as natural reservoirs and present a challenge for diagnosing malaria because of their low levels of circulating parasites. Recent studies of iRBC antibody recognition have shown that responses are quantitatively similar in symptomatic and asymptomatic infections, but no studies have characterised the plasmodial proteins targeted by this response. OBJECTIVES Our main objective was to identify Plasmodium falciparum proteins associated with iRBC ghosts recognised by antibodies in the sera of symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals in the Brazilian Amazon. METHODS We collected symptomatic and asymptomatic sera from patients residing in the Brazilian Amazon and P. falciparum iRBC ghosts to identify the proteins involved in natural antibody recognition by 2D-electrophoresis, western blotting, and high- resolution mass spectrometry. FINDINGS 2D gel-based immunoproteome analysis using symptomatic and asymptomatic sera identified 11 proteins with at least one unique peptide, such as chaperones HSP70-1 and HSP70-x, which likely are components of the secretion machinery/PTEX translocon. PfEMP1 is involved in antigenic variation in symptomatic infections and we found putative membrane proteins whose functions are unknown. MAIN FINDINGS Our results suggest a potential role of old and new proteins, such as antigenic variation proteins, iRBC remodelling, and membrane proteins, with no assigned functions related to the immune response against P. falciparum, providing insights into the pathogenesis, erythrocyte remodelling, and secretion machinery important for alternative diagnosis and/or malaria therapy.

Associação de hipovitaminose D com Lúpus Eritematoso Sistêmico e inflamação / Association of hypovitaminosis D with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus and inflammation

Introdução: Atualmente, é descrita elevada prevalência de hipovitaminose D no Lúpus Eritematoso Sistêmico (LES), a qual se associa a algumas manifestações clínicas e maior atividade inflamatória. Objetivo: Avaliar a associação entre insuficiência de vitamina D com LES e marcadores inflamatórios. Métodos: Estudo transversal, tendo sido avaliados 45 pacientes com LES e 24 controles sem a doença. Níveis de 25-hidroxivitamina D [25(OH)D] menores que 30 ng/mL foram considerados insuficientes. A atividade da doença foi avaliada pelo Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Disease Activity Index (SLEDAI). Foram avaliados, ainda, proteína C reativa ultrassensível (PCRus) e interleucina-6 (IL-6) para verificação do status inflamatório. Para avaliação do envolvimento renal, foram realizados análise de elementos anormais e sedimentoscopia urinárias (EAS), hematúria e piúria quantitativas, proteinúria e depuração de creatinina em urina de 24 horas e anti-DNA de dupla hélice sérico. Resultados: A prevalência de insuficiência de 25(OH)D foi de 55% nos pacientes lúpicos e 8% nos participantes controles (p = 0,001). A mediana da 25(OH)D foi menor nos pacientes do que no grupo controle. Os pacientes com insuficiência de 25(OH)D apresentaram níveis mais elevados de IL-6 e maior prevalência de hematúria ao EAS. Não houve correlação entre vitamina D, nefrite lúpica e SLEDAI. Conclusão: Em nosso estudo, a insuficiência de vitamina D foi mais prevalente em pacientes com LES e se associou com níveis mais elevados de IL-6 e presença de hematúria. .

Introduction: Nowadays it is described a high prevalence of hypovitaminosis D in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE), which is associated with some clinical manifestations and increased inflammatory activity. Objective: To evaluate the association between vitamin D insufficiency with SLE and inflammatory markers. Methods: Cross-sectional study, in which have been evaluated 45 SLE patients and 24 controls without the disease. Levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH) D] less than 30 ng/mL were considered inadequate. Disease activity was assessed by the Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Disease Activity Index (SLEDAI). High sensitivity C reactive protein (hsCRP) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were evaluated for verification of the inflammatory status. For assessment of renal involvement, analysis of abnormal elements and urinay sediment (AES), quantitative hematuria and pyuria, proteinuria and creatinine clearance in 24-hour urine and serum anti-double stranded DNA were performed. Results: The prevalence of 25(OH)D insufficiency was 55% in SLE patients and 8% in the controls participants (p = 0.001). The median of 25(OH)D was lower in patients than in controls. Patients with insufficient 25(OH)D had higher levels of IL-6 and higher prevalence of hematuria in the AES. There was no correlation between vitamin D and SLEDAI or lupus nephritis. Conclusion: In our study, vitamin D deficiency was more prevalent in patients with SLE and was associated with higher levels of IL-6 and hematuria. .

Antibody recognition of Plasmodium falciparum infected red blood cells by symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals in the Brazilian Amazon

In the Amazon Region, there is a virtual absence of severe malaria and few fatal cases of naturally occurring Plasmodium falciparum infections; this presents an intriguing and underexplored area of research. In addition to the rapid access of infected persons to effective treatment, one cause of this phenomenon might be the recognition of cytoadherent variant proteins on the infected red blood cell (IRBC) surface, including the var gene encoded P. falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1. In order to establish a link between cytoadherence, IRBC surface antibody recognition and the presence or absence of malaria symptoms, we phenotype-selected four Amazonian P. falciparum isolates and the laboratory strain 3D7 for their cytoadherence to CD36 and ICAM1 expressed on CHO cells. We then mapped the dominantly expressed var transcripts and tested whether antibodies from symptomatic or asymptomatic infections showed a differential recognition of the IRBC surface. As controls, the 3D7 lineages expressing severe disease-associated phenotypes were used. We showed that there was no profound difference between the frequency and intensity of antibody recognition of the IRBC-exposed P. falciparum proteins in symptomatic vs. asymptomatic infections. The 3D7 lineages, which expressed severe malaria-associated phenotypes, were strongly recognised by most, but not all plasmas, meaning that the recognition of these phenotypes is frequent in asymptomatic carriers, but is not necessarily a prerequisite to staying free of symptoms. .

Evaluación de campo de la precisión de la prueba de diagnóstico rápido SD Bioline Malaria Antigen Pf/Pv® en Colombia / Field evaluation for diagnostic accuracy of the rapid test SD Bioline Malaria Antigen Pf/Pv® in Colombia

Introducción. Las pruebas de diagnóstico rápido han sido postuladas como una forma de garantizar el diagnóstico de malaria, o paludismo, en zonas de difícil acceso. A pesar de su uso difundido, no hay estudios de campo que evalúen la precisión de la prueba de diagnóstico rápido SD Bioline Malaria Antigen Pf/Pv® en Colombia. Objetivo. Evaluar la precisión diagnóstica de la prueba de diagnóstico rápido SD Bioline Malaria Antigen Pf/Pv ®, en dos departamentos endémicos para malaria, comparando el diagnóstico con la gota gruesa corregida por reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (PCR). Materiales y métodos. Se trata de un estudio retrospectivo para evaluar sensibilidad, especificidad, valor diagnóstico positivo (VPP) y negativo (VPN), concordancia y límites de sensibilidad por rangos de parasitemia, de la prueba SD Bioline Malaria Antigen ® Pf/Pv, en Córdoba y Chocó. Los resultados fueron comparados con la gota gruesa corregida por PCR. Resultados. De 383 muestras procesadas, 121 fueron positivas (75 para Plasmodium vivax, 42 para P. falciparum y 4 para infección mixta) y 262 muestras negativas; los resultados obtenidos fueron los siguientes: P. vivax: sensibilidad, 92,0 % (IC 95% 83,6-96,3); especificidad, 98,7 % (IC 95% 96,7-99,5); VPP, 94,5 % (IC 95% 86,7-97,9); VPN, 98,1 % (IC 95% 95,8-99,1); IK, 0,90 (0,80-1,00). P. falciparum: sensibilidad, 88,1 % (IC 95% 75,0-94,8); especificidad, 97,9 % (IC 95% 95,8-99,0); VPP, 84,1% % (IC 95% 70,6-92,1); VPN, 98,5 % (IC 95% 96,6-99,4); IK, 0,80 (0,70-0,90). Conclusiones. La prueba tuvo un buen desempeño, siendo mejor para P. vivax en comparación con que para P. falciparum. Persisten dificultades en la detección de bajas parasitemias. La falta de amplificación de los genes Pfhrp2 y Pfhrp3 en dos muestras con diagnóstico de como infección mixta, sugiere una posible deleción conjunta de estos genes.

Introduction: Rapid diagnostic tests (RDT) have been postulated as a way to ensure access to malaria diagnosis in remote areas. Despite its widespread use, there are no field studies to evaluate the accuracy of the SD Bioline Malaria Antigen Pf/Pv in Colombia RDT. Objective: To evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of the SD Bioline Malaria Antigen Pf/Pv® RDT in two departments endemic for malaria, comparing diagnosis with thick film corrected with PCR. Materials and methods: A retrospective study was carried out to evaluate sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), negative predictive value (NPV), concordance and sensitivity limits according to parasitemia ranges for the SD Bioline Malaria Antigen Pf/Pv ® test in Cordoba and Choco. The results were compared with microscopy corrected by PCR. Results: A total of 383 samples processed, 121 were positive (75 for P. vivax , 42 for P. falciparum and 4 for mixed infection) and 262 negative samples. P. vivax: sensitivity 92.0% (95% CI: 83.6-96.3), specificity 98.7% ( 95% CI: 96.7-99.5), PPV 94.5% (95% CI: 86.7-97.9), NPV 98.1% (95% CI: 95.8-99.1), Cohen´s kappa coefficient was 0.90 (0.80-1.00). P. falciparum: sensitivity 88.1% (95% CI: 75.0-94.8), specificity 97.9% (95% CI: 95.8-99.0), PPV 84.1% (95% CI: 70.6-92.1), NPV 98.5% (95% IC: 96.6-99.4), Cohen´s kappa coefficient 0.80 (95% CI: 0.70-0.90). Conclusions: The test performed well, being better for P. vivax as compared to P. falciparum. There are still difficulties of RDT to detect low parasitemias. The non amplification of Pfhrp2 and Pfhrp3 genes in two samples diagnosed as mixed infection, suggest a possible deletion of these two genes together.

Cross-reactive anti-PfCLAG9 antibodies in the sera of asymptomatic parasite carriers of Plasmodium vivax

The PfCLAG9 has been extensively studied because their immunogenicity. Thereby, the gene product is important for therapeutics interventions and a potential vaccine candidate. Antibodies against synthetic peptides corresponding to selected sequences of the Plasmodium falciparum antigen PfCLAG9 were found in sera of falciparum malaria patients from Rondônia, in the Brazilian Amazon. Much higher antibody titres were found in semi-immune and immune asymptomatic parasite carriers than in subjects suffering clinical infections, corroborating original findings in Papua Guinea. However, sera of Plasmodium vivax patients from the same Amazon area, in particular from asymptomatic vivax parasite carriers, reacted strongly with the same peptides. Bioinformatic analyses revealed regions of similarity between P. falciparum Pfclag9 and the P. vivax ortholog Pvclag7. Indirect fluorescent microscopy analysis showed that antibodies against PfCLAG9 peptides elicited in BALB/c mice react with human red blood cells (RBCs) infected with both P. falciparum and P. vivax parasites. The patterns of reactivity on the surface of the parasitised RBCs are very similar. The present observations support previous findings that PfCLAG9 may be a target of protective immune responses and raises the possibility that the cross reactive antibodies to PvCLAG7 in mixed infections play a role in regulate the fate of Plasmodium mixed infections.

Seroepidemiología del paludismo en un grupo de migrantes en tránsito (Chiapas, 2008)

OBJETIVO: Conocer la prevalencia del paludismo y los factores asociados con la infección de migrantes en la frontera sur de México, durante 2008. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: En 706 migrantes, se investigó la infección activa mediante prueba rápida y PCR o pasada, mediante serología y se aplicó un cuestionario para investigar las condiciones asociadas con la infección. RESULTADOS: 85.6% provenía de Centroamérica. Ninguno presentó infección activa; 4.2% fue seropositivo y la mayoría provenía de los países con mayor incidencia de paludismo en la región. La seropositividad se asoció con el número de episodios previos de paludismo (RM=1.44; IC95% 1.04-2.00), años de permanencia en su comunidad de origen (RM=1.03; IC95% 1.00 -1.07) y conocimiento y automedicación con antipalúdicos (RM=3.38; IC95% 1.48-7.67). CONCLUSIONES: La exposición previa de migrantes al paludismo y las dificultades para su detección indican la necesidad de nuevas estrategias para la vigilancia epidemiológica para estas poblaciones.

OBJECTIVE: To know the prevalence of malaria and the factors associated with the infection in migrants in the southern border of Mexico, during 2008. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In 706 migrants, active malaria infection was investigated using a rapid diagnostic test and PCR and past infection using serology. A questionnaire was applied to investigate the conditions associated to infection. RESULTS: 85.6% originated from Central America, none presented an active infection, although 4.2% were seropositive, most of these came from the countries with the highest malaria incidence in the region. Seropositivity was associated with the number of previous malaria episodes (OR=1.44; IC95% 1.04-2.00), years living in their community of origin (OR=1.03; IC95% 1.00-1.07), and knowledge and self-medication with anti-malaria drugs (OR=3.38; IC95% 1.48-7.67). CONCLUSIONS:. The previous exposure of migrants and the difficulties for their detection indicate the need of new strategies for the epidemiological surveillance for these populations.

Malaria diagnosis from pooled blood samples: comparative analysis of real-time PCR, nested PCR and immunoassay as a platform for the molecular and serological diagnosis of malaria on a large-scale

Malaria diagnoses has traditionally been made using thick blood smears, but more sensitive and faster techniques are required to process large numbers of samples in clinical and epidemiological studies and in blood donor screening. Here, we evaluated molecular and serological tools to build a screening platform for pooled samples aimed at reducing both the time and the cost of these diagnoses. Positive and negative samples were analysed in individual and pooled experiments using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), nested PCR and an immunochromatographic test. For the individual tests, 46/49 samples were positive by real-time PCR, 46/49 were positive by nested PCR and 32/46 were positive by immunochromatographic test. For the assays performed using pooled samples, 13/15 samples were positive by real-time PCR and nested PCR and 11/15 were positive by immunochromatographic test. These molecular methods demonstrated sensitivity and specificity for both the individual and pooled samples. Due to the advantages of the real-time PCR, such as the fast processing and the closed system, this method should be indicated as the first choice for use in large-scale diagnosis and the nested PCR should be used for species differentiation. However, additional field isolates should be tested to confirm the results achieved using cultured parasites and the serological test should only be adopted as a complementary method for malaria diagnosis.

Antibodies against the Plasmodium falciparum glutamate-rich protein from naturally exposed individuals living in a Brazilian malaria-endemic area can inhibit in vitro parasite growth

The glutamate-rich protein (GLURP) is an exoantigen expressed in all stages of the Plasmodium falciparum life cycle in humans. Anti-GLURP antibodies can inhibit parasite growth in the presence of monocytes via antibody-dependent cellular inhibition (ADCI), and a major parasite-inhibitory region has been found in the N-terminal R0 region of the protein. Herein, we describe the antiplasmodial activity of anti-GLURP antibodies present in the sera from individuals naturally exposed to malaria in a Brazilian malaria-endemic area. The anti-R0 antibodies showed a potent inhibitory effect on the growth of P. falciparum in vitro, both in the presence (ADCI) and absence (GI) of monocytes. The inhibitory effect on parasite growth was comparable to the effect of IgGs purified from pooled sera from hyperimmune African individuals. Interestingly, in the ADCI test, higher levels of tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) were observed in the supernatant from cultures with higher parasitemias. Our data suggest that the antibody response induced by GLURP-R0 in naturally exposed individuals may have an important role in controlling parasitemia because these antibodies are able to inhibit the in vitro growth of P. falciparum with or without the cooperation from monocytes. Our results also indicate that TNF-α may not be relevant for the inhibitory effect on P. falciparum in vitro growth.

Monoclonal auto-antibodies and sera of autoimmune patients react with Plasmodium falciparum and inhibit its in vitro growth

The relationship between autoimmunity and malaria is not well understood. To determine whether autoimmune responses have a protective role during malaria, we studied the pattern of reactivity to plasmodial antigens of sera from 93 patients with 14 different autoimmune diseases (AID) who were not previously exposed to malaria. Sera from patients with 13 different AID reacted against Plasmodium falciparum by indirect fluorescent antibody test with frequencies varying from 33-100 percent. In addition, sera from 37 AID patients were tested for reactivity against Plasmodium yoelii 17XNL and the asexual blood stage forms of three different P. falciparum strains. In general, the frequency of reactive sera was higher against young trophozoites than schizonts (p < 0.05 for 2 strains), indicating that the antigenic determinants targeted by the tested AID sera might be more highly expressed by the former stage. The ability of monoclonal auto-antibodies (auto-Ab) to inhibit P. falciparum growth in vitro was also tested. Thirteen of the 18 monoclonal auto-Ab tested (72 percent), but none of the control monoclonal antibodies, inhibited parasite growth, in some cases by greater than 40 percent. We conclude that autoimmune responses mediated by auto-Ab may present anti-plasmodial activity.

Biomarkers for susceptibility to infection and disease severity in human malaria

Malaria remains a major infectious disease that affects millions of people. Once infected with Plasmodium parasites, a host can develop a broad range of clinical presentations, which result from complex interactions between factors derived from the host, the parasite and the environment. Intense research has focused on the identification of reliable predictors for exposure, susceptibility to infection and the development of severe complications during malaria. Although most promising markers are based on the current understanding of malaria immunopathogenesis, some are also focused more broadly on mechanisms of tissue damage and inflammation. Taken together, these markers can help optimise therapeutic strategies and reduce disease burden. Here, we review the recent advances in the identification of malarial biomarkers, focusing on those related to parasite exposure and disease susceptibility. We also discuss priorities for research in biomarkers for severe malaria.

TLR5-dependent immunogenicity of a recombinant fusion protein containing an immunodominant epitope of malarial circumsporozoite protein and the FliC flagellin of Salmonella Typhimurium

Recently, we described the improved immunogenicity of new malaria vaccine candidates based on the expression of fusion proteins containing immunodominant epitopes of merozoites and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium flagellin (FliC) protein as an innate immune agonist. Here, we tested whether a similar strategy, based on an immunodominant B-cell epitope from malaria sporozoites, could also generate immunogenic fusion polypeptides. A recombinant His6-tagged FliC protein containing the C-terminal repeat regions of the VK210 variant of Plasmodium vivax circumsporozoite (CS) protein was constructed. This recombinant protein was successfully expressed in Escherichia coli as soluble protein and was purified by affinity to Ni-agarose beads followed by ion exchange chromatography. A monoclonal antibody specific for the CS protein of P. vivax sporozoites (VK210) was able to recognise the purified protein. C57BL/6 mice subcutaneously immunised with the recombinant fusion protein in the absence of any conventional adjuvant developed protein-specific systemic antibody responses. However, in mice genetically deficient in expression of TLR5, this immune response was extremely low. These results extend our previous observations concerning the immunogenicity of these recombinant fusion proteins and provide evidence that the main mechanism responsible for this immune activation involves interactions with TLR5, which has not previously been demonstrated for any recombinant FliC fusion protein.

Synergism/complementarity of recombinant adenoviral vectors and other vaccination platforms during induction of protective immunity against malaria

The lack of immunogenicity of most malaria antigens and the complex immune responses required for achieving protective immunity against this infectious disease have traditionally hampered the development of an efficient human malaria vaccine. The current boom in development of recombinant viral vectors and their use in prime-boost protocols that result in enhanced immune outcomes have increased the number of malaria vaccine candidates that access pre-clinical and clinical trials. In the frontline, adenoviruses and poxviruses seem to be giving the best immunization results in experimental animals and their mutual combination, or their combination with recombinant proteins (formulated in adjuvants and given in sequence or being given as protein/virus admixtures), has been shown to reach unprecedented levels of anti-malaria immunity that predictably will be somehow reproduced in the human setting. However, all this optimism was previously seen in the malaria vaccine development field without many real applicable results to date. We describe here the current state-of-the-art in the field of recombinant adenovirus research for malaria vaccine development, in particular referring to their use in combination with other immunogens in heterologous prime-boost protocols, while trying to simultaneously show our contributions and point of view on this subject.

Malaria transmission blocking immunity and sexual stage vaccines for interrupting malaria transmission in Latin America

Malaria is a vector-borne disease that is considered to be one of the most serious public health problems due to its high global mortality and morbidity rates. Although multiple strategies for controlling malaria have been used, many have had limited impact due to the appearance and rapid dissemination of mosquito resistance to insecticides, parasite resistance to multiple antimalarial drug, and the lack of sustainability. Individuals in endemic areas that have been permanently exposed to the parasite develop specific immune responses capable of diminishing parasite burden and the clinical manifestations of the disease, including blocking of parasite transmission to the mosquito vector. This is referred to as transmission blocking (TB) immunity (TBI) and is mediated by specific antibodies and other factors ingested during the blood meal that inhibit parasite development in the mosquito. These antibodies recognize proteins expressed on either gametocytes or parasite stages that develop in the mosquito midgut and are considered to be potential malaria vaccine candidates. Although these candidates, collectively called TB vaccines (TBV), would not directly stop malaria from infecting individuals, but would stop transmission from infected person to non-infected person. Here, we review the progress that has been achieved in TBI studies and the development of TBV and we highlight their potential usefulness in areas of low endemicity such as Latin America.

Alterações hematológicas e perfil fenotípico das células mononucleares do sangue periférico de pacientes com malária por P. vivax e P. falciparum na fase aguda e de convalescença da infecção / Hematological and phenotypic profile of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with malaria by P. vivax and P. falciparum in acute and convalescent infection

A malária continua sendo uma das doenças parasitárias mais importantes do mundo, sendo responsável por 300-500 milhões de casos por ano. A resistência dos plasmódios aos medicamentos antimaláricos e dos vetores aos inseticidas agrava ainda mais a situação. Neste contexto, o desenvolvimento de novos métodos terapêuticos e profiláticos é de suma importância. Apesar dos esforços, uma vacina eficaz ainda não foi desenvolvida. Atualmente sabe-se que a resposta imune antiplasmódio pode ser responsável pela proteção e patogênese da doença. Porém, os mecanismos envolvidos na imunidade protetora e/ou patológica ainda não estão esclarecidos. Assim sendo, o presente trabalho objetiva avaliar as alterações hematológicas e o perfil imunofenotípico de células mononucleares de sangue periférico de indivíduos naturalmente infectados por P. vivax (n=47) ou por P. falciparum (n=24) provenientes de área endêmica brasileira (PV-RO), na fase aguda e de convalescença. Para isso, sangue dos voluntários foi coletado para realização do exame parasitológico, do hemograma completo e para obtenção de células mononucleadas para a avaliação do perfil imunofenotípico através de citometria de fluxo. As populações alvo incluíram células CD4(positivo), CD8(positivo), linfócitos T, Tgamadelta, células CD3(negativo) e subpopulações produtoras de diferentes citocinas (IFN-gama, TNF-alfa, IL-2, IL-4, IL-10); células NK, NKT e subpopulações CD4(positivo) e CD8(positivo); células B e subpopulações (incluindo populações produtoras de TGF-beta). Na fase aguda, pacientes com malária vivax e falciparum apresentaram plaquetopenia, leucopenia e aumento no número de bastões e também apresentaram um aumento no percentual de células CD4(positivo) CD8(negativo) e redução no percentual de células B CD5(negativo) CD11b(negativo). Pacientes com P. vivax apresentaram aumento no percentual de: células CD4(positivo), CD8(positivo), TCRgamadelta(positivo) e CD3(negativo) produtoras de TNF-alfa; células CD8 ativadas, células T e células CD3(negativo) produtoras de IL-10; células B expressando TGF-beta. Nos indivíduos infectados por P. falciparum foi observado um aumento de células T TNF-alfa(positivo) e redução de células T citotóxicas. Na fase de convalescença, os dois grupos apresentaram redução de células Tgamadelta e CD3(negativo) produtoras de TNF-alfa; células CD3(negativo) IL-2(positivo); células CD3(negativo) IL-10(positivo). Apenas os indivíduos infectados com P. vivax apresentaram redução de CD4(positivo) CD8(negativo); células B CD5(positivo) CD11b(negativo); células CD8(positivo) produtoras de TNF-alfa e de TNF-alfa e IFN-gama de forma simultânea; além do aumento de células B CD5(negativo) CD11b(negativo). Tanto o pacientes com P. falciparum quanto com o P. vivax apresentaram significante diminuição no número de linfócitos e apenas algumas subpopulações celulares circulantes se encontravam alteradas. Entretanto, alterações significativas no perfil de expressão de citocinas foram observadas principalmente nos pacientes com P. vivax. Dentro desse contexto, na fase aguda da malária por P. vivax houve aumento tanto no percentual de células com marcação para citocinas do tipo 1 quanto para citocinas do tipo 2. Como todos os pacientes incluídos no trabalho apresentaram malária não complicada, pode-se supor que o mais importante no controle da gravidade da doença é justamente o balanço entre resposta pró e anti-inflamatória.

Improving the production of the denatured recombinant N-terminal domain of rhoptry-associated protein 2 from a Plasmodium falciparum target in the pathology of anemia in falciparum malaria

Rhoptry-associated protein 2 (RAP2) is known to be discharged from rhoptry onto the membrane surface of infected and uninfected erythrocytes (UEs) ex vivo and in vitro and this information provides new insights into the understanding of the pathology of severe anemia in falciparum malaria. In this study, a hexahistidine-tagged recombinant protein corresponding to residues 5-190 of the N-terminal of Plasmodium falciparum RAP2 (rN-RAP2) was produced using a new method of solubilization and purification. Expression was induced with D-lactose, a less expensive alternative inducer to the more common isopropyl-²-D-thio-galactopyranosidase. The recombinant protein was purified using two types of commercially-available affinity columns, iminodiacetic and nitrilotriacetic. rN-RAP2 had immunogenic potential, since it induced high titers of anti-RAP2 antibodies in mice. These antibodies recognized full-length RAP2 prepared from Triton X-100 extracts from two strains of P. falciparum. In fact, the antibody recognized a 29-kDa product of RAP2 cleavage as well as 82 and 70-kDa products of RAP1 cleavage. These results indicate that the two antigens share sequence epitopes. Our expressed protein fragment was shown to contain a functional epitope that is also present in rhoptry-derived ring surface protein 2 which attaches to the surface of both infected and UEs and erythroid precursor cells in the bone marrow of malaria patients. Serum from malaria patients who developed anemia during infection recognized rN-RAP2, suggesting that this protein fragment may be important for epidemiological studies investigating whether immune responses to RAP2 exacerbate hemolysis in falciparum malaria patients.

Possible biochemical impact of malaria infection in subjects with HIV co-infection in Anambra state, Nigeria.

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES: The present study was designed to determine possible contributory impact of malaria infection on some biochemical markers in subjects with HIV co-infection in order to know if they are adverse or protective. METHODS: Participants were recruited at the Voluntary Counseling and Testing Unit, Nnamdi Azikiwe University Teaching Hospital, Nnewi, Nigeria and grouped into: (i) Malaria and HIV co-infection group (n = 45); and (ii) HIV infected group without concurrent malaria infection (n = 57). Standard laboratory methods were used for the HIV and Plasmodium falciparum antigen screening, malaria parasite density, CD4+ T-cell count, packed cell volume, white blood cell count, serum iron and albumin concentrations. RESULTS: The results showed that serum iron and albumin were significantly reduced and raised respectively in 'Malaria-HIV co-infection group' compared with 'HIV infection group' (p < 0.05 and p < 0.05). A positive association was observed between age and serum iron concentration in malaria and HIV co-infected group (r = 0.580; p < 0.05) while negative associations were observed between PCV and serum iron (r = - 0.388; p < 0.05) and between CD4+ T-cells and serum iron concentration (r = -0.362; p < 0.05) in malaria and HIV co-infected group. The CD4+ T-cell count, WBC count, PCV were not significantly different between the Malaria-HIV co-infection group and HIV infection group. INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSION: In the present study serum iron and albumin concentrations were the most sensitive indicators that showed the contributory impact of malaria infection on biochemical index in HIV co-infected subjects. The findings suggest that at the defined stage of HIV infection in the present study, malaria co-infection may moderate the impact of HIV infection on iron metabolism and hepatic synthesis of albumin.

Malaria vaccine: a current perspective.

The observation that inactivated Plasmodium sporozoites could protect against malaria is about a hundred years old. However, systematic demonstration of protection using irradiated sporozoites occurred in the nineteen-sixties, providing the impetus for the development of a malaria vaccine. In 1983, the circumsporozoite protein (CSP), a major sporozoite surface antigen, became the first Plasmodium gene to be cloned, and a CSP-based vaccine appeared imminent. Today, 25 years later, we are still without an effective malaria vaccine, despite considerable information regarding the genomics and proteomics of the malaria parasites. Although clinical immunity to malaria has been well-documented in adults living in malaria endemic areas, our understanding of the host-immune responses operating in such malaria immune persons remains poor, and limits the development of immune control of the disease. Currently, several antigen and adjuvant combinations have entered clinical trials, in which efficacy against experimental sporozoite challenge and/or exposure to natural infection is evaluated. This review collates information on the recent status of the field. Unresolved challenges facing the development of a malaria vaccine are also discussed.

Naturally acquired antibodies to merozoite surface protein (MSP)-1(19) and cumulative exposure to Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax in remote populations of the Amazon Basin of Brazil

To infer recent patterns of malaria transmission, we measured naturally acquired IgG antibodies to the conserved 19-kDa C-terminal region of the merozoite surface protein (MSP)-1 of both Plasmodium vivax (PvMSP-1(19)) and Plasmodium falciparum (PfMSP-1(19)) in remote malaria-exposed populations of the Amazon Basin. Community-based cross-sectional surveys were carried out between 2002 and 2003 in subjects of all age groups living along the margins of the Unini and Jaú rivers, Northwestern Brazil. We found high prevalence rates of IgG antibodies to PvMSP-1(19) (64.0 - 69.6 percent) and PfMSP-1(19) (51.6 - 52.0 percent), with significant differences in the proportion of subjects with antibodies to PvMSP-1(19) according to age, place of residence and habitual involvement in high-risk activities, defining some groups of highly exposed people who might be preferential targets of malaria control measures. In contrast, no risk factor other than age was significantly associated with seropositivity to PfMSP-1(19). Only 14.1 percent and 19.3 percent of the subjects tested for antibodies to PvMSP-1(19) and PfMSP-1(19) in consecutive surveys (142 - 203 days apart) seroconverted or had a three fold or higher increase in the levels of antibodies to these antigens. We discuss the extent to which serological data correlated with the classical malariometric indices and morbidity indicators measured in the studied population at the time of the seroprevalence surveys and highlight some limitations of serological data for epidemiological inference.

Prevalence and level of antibodies to the circumsporozoite protein of human malaria parasites in five states of the Amazon region of Brazil

The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of malaria infection and antibodies against the repetitive epitopes of the circumsporozoite (CS) proteins of Plasmodium falciparum, P. malariae, P. vivax VK210, P. vivax VK247, and P. vivax-like in individuals living in the states of Rondônia, Pará, Mato Grosso, Amazonas, and Acre. Active malaria transmission was occurring in all studied sites, except in Acre. P. falciparum was the predominant species in Pará and Rondônia and P. vivax in Mato Grosso. Infection by P. malariae was low but this Plasmodium species was detected in Rondônia (3.5 percent), Mato Grosso (2.5 percent), and Pará (0.8 percent). High prevalence and levels of serological reactivity against the CS repeat peptides of P. falciparum were detected in Rondônia (93 percent) and Pará (85 percent). Sera containing antibodies against the CS repeat of P. malariae occurred more frequently in Rondônia (79 percent), Pará (76 percent), and Amazonas (68 percent). Antibodies against the repeat epitope of the standard CS protein of P. vivax VK210, P. vivax VK247, and P. vivax-like were more frequent in Rondônia, Pará, and Mato Grosso. The high frequency of reactions to P. malariae in most of the areas suggests that the infection by this Plasmodium species has been underestimated in Brazil.